Historical Background Of The Upanishads Philosophy Essay

Historical Background Of The Upanishads Philosophy Essay The Upanishads are said to contain the essence of the Vedas and the Vedas are the source of the (no need for the here) Vedanta philosophy. They contain the spiritual experiences and revelations of sages, the Rishis. They are said to be the products of the highest wisdom, supreme divine knowledge, which was directly heard (shrutti) in meditation. Hence they stir the hearts of people and inspire themà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..They give supreme food for the soul  [1]  They are rich in profound philosophical thought and there is great depth of meaning in the passages and verses. They give a vivid description of the nature of Atman, the Supreme Soulà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and expound suitable methods and aids to attain the Immortal Brahman, the Highest Purusha.  [2]  They have exercised considerable influence on the religion and philosophy in India. The Upanishads are regarded as the final part of the Vedas, and primarily discuss philosophy, meditation and the nature of God and form the core spiritual thought of Vedantic Hinduism. They are considered as mystic and spiritual contemplations of the Vedas, and are known as Vedanta (the end/culmination of the Vedas). Although the Vedas look outward in reverence and awe of the phenomenal world, the Upanishads look inward to the powers of human consciousness. Opinion differs as to the age of the Upanishads. Some Western scholars have fixed the age as 6th century BCE, but they do not belong to a particular period of Sanskrit literature. The oldest, such as Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya may date to the Brahmana period (roughly before the 7th century BCE) while the youngest may date to the medieval or early modern period. However, Sivananda would say they are dateless and eternal as they came out of the mouth of Brahman and so existed before the creation of the world. Shad means to shatter or destroy so by having knowledge of the Upanishads one destroys ignorance, and knowledge of Brahman is called Upanishad because it leads to Brahman and helps aspirants attain Brahman. Other schools of thought say Upanishad means sitting at the feet of the teacher. The Upanishads were not meant for the masses, as they contain the highest speculations of philosophy. They were only meant for the select few, who were seen as worthy to receive instruction initially from the rishis and later from the Brahmin teaching caste, hence the term Upanishad at first signified secret teaching or doctrine. The teachers integrated to become the Brhma Rishis. The Vedas were initially not written down but passed on orally, by chants and hymns. The Aryan migrants brought Sanskrit to India and so the Upanishads were eventually written down by the Rishis and Brahmin priests. Over 1000 have been recorded but Sankaracharya (8th century mystic who reawakened India to its spiritual herit age) is said to have collected together 108 Upanishads, which are summarised in his famous work The Viveka Chudamani. Of these the principal 10 Upanishads still studied today, are the Brhadarnayaka, Chandogya, Isha, Kena, Katha, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Mudaka and Prashna. The ancient rishis sought to understand the fundamental truths of mans being; the origins, the nature and the destiny of man and his universe, the meaning of life, the world and the relation of the individual to the supreme soul. They sought answers to these basic questions: who am I, what is the universe, whence are we born, on what do we rest, where do we go, are there such things as immortality, freedom, perfection, eternal bliss, everlasting peace, what is Atman, Brahman, or the Self, which is birthless, deathless, changeless, self-existent how to attain immortality or Brahman, what is the means of freedom from earthly bondage. The road to self-discovery is discussed in the Taittiriya Upanishad, which gives us rules for right conduct in our lives and advises If you are in doubt about right conduct, Follow the example of the sages, who know what is best for spiritual growth.  [3]  (chpt 11-v4). It tells us the body is only the outer layer surrounding our self, each layer less physical than the last: the physical sheath is made up of food (Pt 2, 2.1), the vital sheath is made up of living breath (3.1), the mental sheath is made up of waves of thought (3.1) and the sheath of wisdom is the intellect and within this is the sheath of bliss. Bliss is the heart, and Brahman the foundation. Those who affirm the Lord affirm themselves.  [4]  In the journey to discover who we are, the rishis looked at these states of consciousness (Brihadranyaka Upanishad chpt4). As awareness is withdrawn from these layers of consciousness it was discovered that the mind is not conscious, it is only an instrument of our consci ousness. If we were able to observe from within each state, would that be the knower, ie the self? In all creatures, all persons the Self is the innermost essence. Janaka asks who is the self and Yajnavalka replies: The Self, pure awareness, shines as the light within the heart, surrounded by the sense. Only seeming to think, seeming to move, the Self neither sleeps nor wakes nor dreams. This notion of the Self and Brahman being one is considered in the Katha Upanishad (chpt2-v20). Hidden in the heart of every creature exists the Self, subtler than the subtlest, greater than the greatest. They go beyond sorrow who extinguish their self-will and behold the glory fo the Self through the grace of the Lord of Love. A similar theme can be seen in the Isha Upanishad in its description of the Lord as being enshrined in the hearts of all. This seems to merge into a description of the Self culminating in v8 He it is who holds the cosmos together. The question of attaining immortality or Brahman is discussed in the Katha Upanishad, where we have a teenage boy (Natchiketa) as the student and Death (Yama) being the teacher. This studies the notion of reincarnation, wherein Natchiketa is sacrificed to death by his father but Natchiketa is granted three wishes, one for each of the three nights he has spent in the house of Yama (Pt 1-chpt1-v9-29. Natchiketa asks that when he is reincarnated his father will recognise him, secondly that he wants to remember what has gone before, he doesnt want to lose prior knowledge and thirdly he wants to know for certain if his sole really exists after death. The answer is to renounce passing pleasures and seek wisdom (chpt2-v3-4). Death says, The truth of the Self cannot come through one who has not realised the Self  [5]  , so self-realisation is the key. The ignorant believe that when the body dies, they die. This is further expounded by the Mandukya Upanishad which teaches us the need for knowledge through awareness and how this can be passed on through teachers. There are two types of knowledge, that taught through study, or lower knowledge, and the higher knowledge which leads to self-realisation, through mediation those who are pure in heart, who practice meditation and conquer all their senses and passions, shall attain the immortal Self.. The Prashna Upanishad also tells us after the sage Pippaladas explanation of where we come from (qu1-v4-10), that those who meditate, seek wisdom, self-discipline and faith in God will travel after death to the Supreme refuge, beyond the reach of fear and free from the cycle of birth and death. This Upanishad concludes with the question Do you know the self? (QuVI-v1) and Pippaladas summary describes the sixteen forms of the self within the body and that one must realise the self so that these sixteen forms disappear. Then there is no more name or form for us as human beings and we attain immortality. The self is the paramount goal of life. Attain this goal and go beyond death. (QuVI-v) iii) Where did I come from? This question is posed by the Kena Upanishad: by whom? Who makes my mind think?who sees through my eyes and hears through my ears? The teacher replies The Self is the ear of the ear, the eye of the eye and the mind of the mind.. This Upanishad is about knowing Brahman yet how can this not be an impossible task for the average man? How can we possibly conceive of understanding something so abstract and inscrutable? Yet we are urged to try: It is the power of Brahman that makes the mind to think, desire, and will. Therefore use this power to meditate on Brahman. (chpt4-v5-6) However, it seems we are compelled to continually ask questions without questions we cannot develop. What gives us this desire to know, to attain self-realisation? Easwarans interpretation of this question is: by whom impelled do all the motions of life stir?  [6]  Easwaran also quotes Shankara, By whose mere presence does that desire arise which moves the universe? Swami Vishnudevananda says just as the perception of things in the gross world is impossible without light, so knowledge of self cannot emerge other than by inquiry. Who am I? How was this universe born? What is its cause?  [7]  Just as mans quest for enjoyment finds that joy is within himself, knowledge will never be complete until he turns his vision inwards. The Upanishads tell us that all knowledge is in the self, and in fact, knowledge is self. That eternal knowledge of the self when reflected through the mind and brain of man becomes intuition, reason and instinct. In lower animals it is manifested as instinct, in man as reason and in advanced man as intuition. Individual existence is therefore a manifestation of the real existence of the self. So it seems to me we are compelled to seek knowledge, and therefore by implication to seek knowledge of the self. As Easwaran points out, exploring the unconscious requires the daring of youth, as in the Katha Upanishad. The Katha Upanishad seems to be saying that within all human experience it is only the Self that is the enjoyer, and so once one attains self-realisation there will nothing further to know. In the meantime man is forever searching, searching, even when he doesnt know what he is looking for. As Vishnudevananda points out some scale Mount Everest to learn, others navigate under the Artic oceans, while others fly into outer space. Others retire from the world to study or roam the world in search of knowledge. I feel this will go on for a long time yet until man has reached a stage of intellect where self-realisation becomes attainable for all, in ages to come. In the meantime we aspire to seek out extra little bits of knowledge and we pick up lots more along the way by accident without even r ealising it. The problem for us lowly mortals is in a quote I heard a long time ago when I was at college and has stuck with me ever since, although I dont know who said it or when: is not just the known unknown but the unknown unknown. I am aware of many things I do not know but there is of course an ocean of things which I dont even realise are there to be known. It seems an impossible task. Perhaps as I take the advice of the Upanishads and practise meditation, in years to come I may begin to feel as if I have started on my own journey.

Mexicos War for Independence :: essays research papers fc

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mexico is the northernmost country of Latin America. It lies just south of the United States. The Rio Grande forms about two-thirds of the boundary between Mexico and the United States. Among all the countries of the Western Hemisphere, only the United States and Brazil have more people than Mexico. Mexico City is the capital and largest city of Mexico. It also is one of the world's largest metropolitan areas in population. Hundreds of years ago, the Indians of Mexico built large cities, developed a calendar, invented a counting system and used a form of writing. The last Indian empire in Mexico, the Aztec, fell to Spanish invaders in 1521. For the next 300 years, Mexico was a Spanish colony. The Spaniards took Mexico's riches, but they also introduced many changes in farming, government, industry and religion. The descendants of the Spaniards became Mexico's ruling class. The Indians remained poor and uneducated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During the Spanish colonial period, a third group of people developed in Mexico. These people, who had both Indian and white ancestors, became known as Mestizos. Today, the great majority of Mexicans are Mestizos, and they generally take great pride in their Indian ancestry. A number of government programs stress the Indian role in Mexican culture. In 1949, the government made an Indian the symbol of Mexican nationality. The war for independence is sometimes considered a revolutionary war. It is not, however. The war for independence was fought to end colonial rule. The war was based on politics and a separation of powers. In this essay I will start from the rising discontentment amongst the indigenous population and how the higher ranking classes exploited their failures for their own societal class gain in a system where they have always been favored more by societal leaders. Once New Spain settled in its new territory, inner cores were created as part of the system. New Spain, from now on, would be under direction of the mother country Spain. Its colonial system would be entrenched in the new colony and therefore, its economy would strive to gain profit and make Spain richer and stronger. The economy was based on agriculture, ranching, mining, industry, and commerce. The majority of labor that would go into doing these jobs would be from the indigenous people, or â€Å"Indians†. Although some â€Å"Indians† were paid decent wages, most were treated unfairly or poorly. They worked long, hard hours.

Pulse Polio

Pulse Polio Pulse Polio is an immunization campaign established by the government of India in 1995-96 to eradicate poliomyelitis (polio) in India by vaccinating all children under the age of five years against polio virus. This project deals with the ways to fight poliomyelitis through a large scale immunization programme, co-operating with various international institutions, state governments and Non Governmental Organizations. In India, vaccination against Polio started in 1978 with Expanded Program in Immunization (EPI). By 1984, it was successful in covering around 40% of all infants, giving 3 doses of OPV to each.In 1985, the Universal Immunization Program (UIP) was launched to cover all the districts of the country. UIP became a part of child safe and survival motherland program (CSSM) in 1992 and Reproductive and Child Health Program (RCH) in 1997. This program led to a significant increase in coverage, up to 95%. The number of reported cases of polio also declined from 28,757 during 1987 to 3,265 in 1995. In 1995, following the Polio Eradication Initiative of World Health Organization (1988), India launched Pulse Polio Immunization Program along with Universal Immunization Program which aimed at 100% coverage.In 2012, India was declared free of polio by WHO. Key objectives The Pulse Polio Initiative (PPI) aims at covering every individual in the country. It aspires to reach even children in remote communities through an improved social mobilization plan. [1] †¢Not a single child should miss the immunization, leaving no chance of polio occurrence. †¢Cases of Acute Flaccid Paralysis (AFP) to be reported in time and stool specimens of them to be collected within 14 days. Outbreak Response Immunization (ORI) to be conducted as early as possible. †¢Maintaining high level of surveillance. Performance of good mop-up operations where polio has disappeared. †¢India to be polio-free by 2005. [1] Steps involved †¢Setting up of booths in al l parts of the country. [1] †¢Initializing walk-in cold rooms, freezer rooms, deep freezers, ice-lined refrigerators and cold boxes for ensuring steady supply of vaccine to booths. †¢Arranging employees, volunteers and vaccines. †¢Ensuring vaccine vial monitor on each vaccine vial. †¢Immunizing children with OPV on National Immunization Days. †¢Identifying missing children from immunization process. †¢Surveillance of efficacy. Study of its success State specific cases-[1]The Gujarat case- In 1998, in Bhavnagar district of Gujarat, immunization officers reported that 98 children out of the total of 2,000 missed the vaccine. Health workers were first prevented from coming to village. Later, when the booths were established and the program did start, lot of parents did not bring their children to the booth. According to them, children from their village developed polio-paralysis even after the immunization. The Bengal Case-[2] Health officers, who visited the village in West Bengal, saw utter discontent amongst the people as they stated that two children contracted the virus after the vaccine.In another instance, parents of a two-and-a-half-year-old child who developed cellulites in the heel were convinced that it had been caused by the vaccine that was given to their child a week before. The doctor who gave the vaccine was forced to pay the entire amount for the child’s treatment. Therefore, the reasons for non-compliance by the people can be anything from lack of attitude to lack of awareness, from vaccinating an ill child to apprehension about the side-effects of polio drops (including fever, loose motion, death, infertility etc. [3] It is found out that poor participation of doctors and nurses, difficulty in maintaining and procuring vaccine, difficulty in procuring vehicles, inadequate support from community members are also reasons why the program has not been completely successful. [4] India free of polio 2012 The last reported case of polio in India was in West Bengal on January 13, 2011. [5] On 25 February, 2012, India was officially struck off the list of polio-endemic countries by the World Health Organization (WHO). [6]

Character Analysis Dr. Vivian Bearing in Wit

Perhaps you have had a professor like Dr. Bearing Vivian in the play Wit: brilliant, uncompromising, and cold-hearted. English teachers come with many personalities. Some are easy-going, creative and engaging. And some were those tough-love teachers who are as disciplined as a drill sergeant because they want you to become better writers and better thinkers. Vivian Bearing, the main character from Margaret Edsons play Wit, is not like those teachers. Shes tough, yes, but she does not care about her students and their many struggles. Her only passion (at least at the beginning of the play) is for 17th Century poetry, particularly the complex sonnets of John Donne. How Poetic Wit Influenced Dr. Bearing Early on in the play (also known as W;t with a semicolon), the audience learns that Dr. Bearing dedicated her life to these Holy Sonnets, spending decades exploring the mystery and poetic wit of each line. Her academic pursuits and her knack for explicating poetry have shaped her personality. She has become a woman who can analyze but not emphasize. Dr. Bearings Hard Character Her callousness is most evident during the plays flashbacks. While she narrates directly to the audience, Dr. Bearing recalls several encounters with her former students. As the pupils struggle with the material, often embarrassed by their intellectual inadequacy, Dr. Bearing responds by saying: VIVIAN: You can come to this class prepared, or you can excuse yourself from this class, this department, and this university. Do not think for a moment that I will tolerate anything in between. In a subsequent scene, a student tries to obtain an extension on the essay, due to the death of her grandmother. Dr. Bearing replies: VIVIAN: Do what you will, but the paper is due when it is due. As Dr. Bearing revisits her past, she realizes she should have offered more human kindness to her students. Kindness is something Dr. Bearing will come to desperately crave as the play continues. Why? She is dying of advanced ovarian cancer. Fighting Cancer Despite her insensitivity, there is a sort of heroism at the heart of the protagonist. This is evident in the first five minutes of the play. Dr. Harvey Kelekian, an oncologist, and leading research scientist ​informs Dr. Bearing that she has a terminal case of ovarian cancer. Dr. Kelekians bedside manner, by the way, matches the same clinical nature of Dr. Bearing. With his recommendation, she decides to pursue an experimental treatment, one that wont save her life, but one that will further scientific knowledge. Propelled by her innate love of knowledge, she is determined to accept a painfully large dosage of chemotherapy. While Vivian battles cancer both physically and mentally, the poems of John Donne now take on new meaning. The poems references to life, death, and God are seen by the professor in a stark yet enlightening perspective. Accepting Kindness During the latter half of the play, Dr. Bearing begins to shift away from her cold, calculating ways. Having reviewed key events (not to mention mundane moments) in her life, she becomes less like the matter-of-fact scientists who study her and more like the compassionate Nurse Susie who befriends her. In the final stages of her cancer, Vivian Bearing bears incredible amounts of pain and nausea. She and the nurse share a popsicle and discuss palliative care issues. The nurse also calls her sweetheart, something Dr. Bearing would never have allowed in the past. After nurse Susie leaves, Vivian Bearing speaks to the audience: VIVIAN: Popsicles? Sweetheart? I cant believe my life has become so. . . corny. But it cant be helped. Later on in her monologue, she explains: VIVIAN: Now is not the time for verbal swordplay, for unlikely flights of imagination and wildly shifting perspectives, for metaphysical conceit, for wit. And nothing would be worse than a detailed scholarly analysis. Erudition. Interpretation. Complication. Now is the time for simplicity. Now is the time for, dare I say it, kindness. There are limitations to academic pursuits. There is a place - a highly important place - for warmth and kindness. This is exemplified in the last 10 minutes of the play when, before Dr. Bearing passes away, she is visited by her former professor and mentor, E. M. Ashford. The 80-year-old woman sits beside the Dr. Bearing. She holds her; she asks Dr. Bearing if shed like to hear some poetry by John Donne. Although only semi-conscious, Dr. Bearing moans Noooo. She does not want to listen to a Holy Sonnet. So instead, in the plays most simplistic and touching scene, Prof. Ashford reads a childrens book, the sweet and poignant The Runaway Bunny by Margaret Wise Brown. As she reads, Ashford realizes that the picture book is: ASHFORD: A little allegory of the soul. No matter where it hides. God will find it. Philosophical or Sentimental I had a tough-as-nails college professor, way back in the late 1990s when Margaret Edsons Wit was making its west coast premiere. This English professor, whose specialty was bibliographic studies, often intimidated his students with his cold, calculating brilliance. When he saw Wit in Los Angeles, he gave it a fairly negative review. He argued that the first half was captivating but that the second half was disappointing. He was not impressed by Dr. Bearings change of heart. He believed that the message of kindness over intellectualism was all too common in modern-day stories, so much so that its impact is minimal at best. On the one hand,  the professor is right. The theme of Wit is common. The vitality and importance of love are found in countless plays, poems, and greeting cards. But for some of us romantics, its a theme that never gets old. As much fun as I might have with intellectual debates, Id rather have a hug.